Why is this important?
When waste cannot be recycled, repaired, or reused, last option is to neutralise it and dispose of it safely.
In most humanitarian settings, environmentally friendly options for the end-of-life process of waste are limited and present numerous environmental and health challenges (see factsheet on final waste disposal in humanitarian settings).
Unlike landfilling, which requires a large fenced, controlled sanitary field, with regulations and trained staff, incineration demands much less space and significantly reduces the volume of waste.
However, inadequate combustion of waste can generate serious environmental (e.g. air, soil, food contamination) and health risks (e.g. cancer, cardiovascular problems, negative effects on reproductive systems) due to the emission of ‘forever’ chemicals (e.g. dioxins, furans and particulate matter) which can travel long distances and persist in the environment.(2) Such hazards occur when the temperature is not high enough, and the combustion is incomplete.
When incineration is the only available option, minimising the associated risks is essential to upholding the “do no harm” principle.
What are the solutions?
The primary solution is always to reduce the amount of waste produced and discarded. For the remaining waste, incineration can be considered as an option. Incineration is most commonly used for infectious, medical, or hazardous waste (exceptions include e-waste which can be recycled/repurposed, and wet organic waste which does not burn easily) as a way to reduce the risks of contamination of the environment or of people. In the case of perished drugs, incineration is used as a way to eliminate the risk of them being resold on the black market.
Incineration differs from open-air burning in that it occurs in a controlled facility, where high temperatures are achieved and emissions can be partially reduced. Incinerators must be situated away from residential and cultivated areas. Four types of incinerators are used in humanitarian settings:
- The drum reducer, barely better than open-air burning, and not promoted here;
- The DeMontfort Incinerator, a double-chamber small scale incinerator available in kit and relatively easy to build anywhere, able to reach 850°C;
- Semi-industrial incinerators are more robust and long–lasting, but more expensive;
- Industrial sites, such as cement kilns or similar factories, sometimes accept to burn waste in their very high temperature furnaces.
To avoid irreversible effects on the environment, the incineration of waste needs to reach a minimum temperature of at least 850°C for a minimum of 2 seconds (3) and at least 900°C for medical waste.(4) While this is very difficult to verify, it is critical to aim for this standard to avoid irreversible effects on the environment and human health.
Details
De Montfort Incinerator
This brick incinerator was developed by De Monfort University and is widely used by humanitarian actors and remote hospitals in middle-income countries. Used for the combustion of medical waste (it is not adapted to treat waste which can explode such as aerosols/lightbulbs), it has two combustion chambers, allowing fumes to be burnt and consequently reducing the level of emissions.(5) It is considered a small-scale incinerator whose capacity averages 12kg of waste per hour.
Benefits: Cheap (1,000-2,000 USD) (6) and easy to build with local materials with a lifespan of 1-5 years. In theory, it can reach 850°C. Ready-to-build kits can be ordered or prepared locally to be sent to the field.
Drawbacks: Fumes from incineration are not entirely treated and can contribute to air pollution. To minimise harm, incinerators must be situated far from residential areas, with careful consideration of wind direction due to the potential toxicity of the emissions. Effective operation also requires extensive monitoring, experienced staff, and significant resources. Proper planning and supervision are critical to ensure safe incineration. Additionally, the resulting ash, which may still contain toxic elements, must be handled and disposed of properly.
More information on how to build and use a De Monfort incinerator here.
Semi-industrial incinerators
In the context of large or long-term humanitarian responses, or in significant remote hospitals, the purchase of semi-industrial incinerators for treating hazardous and medical waste can be a viable option. These incinerators can reach very high temperatures (around 1200°C) and are therefore preferred to limit the toxicity of fumes.
Drawbacks: very expensive, high maintenance costs (HR, fuel)
Collaboration with industrial sites
In certain contexts, cement kilns or metal industries operating blast furnaces may accept specific waste, such as medical waste, used oils, and tyres, to be used as a combustible. This process, known as ‘co-processing,’ can help manage large quantities of waste and reduce the risk of contamination, as temperatures can reach up to 1,450°C. These high temperatures enable the destruction of fumes, thereby reducing their toxicity. Some cement factories might accept humanitarian waste for a fee, while others may do so free of charge as part of their corporate social responsibility initiatives.
Types of waste suitable for co-processing consist of expired drugs, old tires, oil-based paint, used oils and filters, plastics, solvents, workshop waste, coolants etc. Waste that can be recycled such as e-waste should not be sent to cement kilns. Significant amounts of waste need to be provided on a regular basis for the cement kilns to be interested in setting up partnerships with humanitarian organisations.
This option is not yet much used by humanitarian organisations, although it could be further developed in the future given the increasing number of modern cement factories in low-income countries.(7)
Setting up these types of agreements can, however, be time-consuming, and it is essential to verify quality standards. Not all cement factories will accept humanitarian waste, as the quantities and types of waste generated by humanitarian programmes may not be sufficient or economically viable (e.g., expired drugs have low heating value). Thorough checks are necessary to evaluate the quality of the process, the management of fumes, and the company’s environmental certifications. Some large NGOs have developed tools and expertise to assess cement kilns, and it is recommended to share these assessments to ensure that health and environmental risks are minimised.
MSF’s Pacemaker guide (8) provides additional information as well as a cement plant location database.(9)
Point of attention
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Point of attention
Incineration should not divert efforts away from the priorities of reducing, reusing, and recycling waste.(10)
Incineration is dangerous and toxic. Even in best condition with catalytic filters in high income countries, a municipal waste incinerator produces almost 5 times more polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), a major toxic pollutant, than a coal factory.(11) The waste-to-energy principle is questioned, arguing that in the US, waste incinerators emit almost twice as much CO2e per Kwh produced than coal electricity plants.(12)
Key actions
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# 1 Reduce waste as a priority
Keep reducing the quantity of waste produced and disposed of. Even the best incineration produces greenhouse gas emissions and toxic pollutants. Follow the Waste Management principles.
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# 2 Ban open air or drum burning of waste
Open burning of waste is particularly harmful as it releases pollutants such as dioxins, furans, or particulate matter also called ‘forever chemicals’ which remain in the environment and have significant long-term negative effects on the environment and human health.(1)
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#3 Explore local legislation and existing infrastructure
Although not always enforced, national legislation on final waste disposal must be respected. Look for existing legally approved facilities, which are certified for transport and disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes.
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#4 Collaborate with other humanitarian organisations
Pooling resources with other humanitarian organisations present in the country might be particularly beneficial from a logistical and financial perspective. Some organisations might have already assessed and partnered with cement kilns or might have built/purchased an incinerator which your organisation can benefit from. HULO (14) and the WREC project might support you in developing joint initiatives on waste management.
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#5 Choose the appropriate facility and assess its processes
Get expert advice to help you choose the appropriate disposal technique. If the available incineration option does not reach environmental standards (i.e.: combustion for at least 2 seconds at 850°C), landfilling might be a preferred option. Check if other organisations have assessed the facilities, and would be willing to share their findings. Make regular visits.
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#6 Set up the partnership
Set up a contract with the facility, including rights to visit. Partnerships might include a fee which would need to be anticipated in budgets.
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#7 Consider upgrading the facility
When existing incinerators do not meet environmental standards, consider evaluating options to provide technical and financial support to upgrade an existing facility. This is in general more sustainable than building or purchasing a new one. Set a clear timeframe and safely store the waste in the meantime. Collaborate with other key actors, such as UN agencies or international NGOs. Ensure that sufficient budget is allocated for ongoing maintenance, including fuel and human resources.
To consider
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Potential co-benefits
- Energy use reduction: Energy use can be reduced when waste is used as a fuel in cement kilns.
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Success conditions
- Compliance: Infrastructure and protocols must be strictly checked and ensured to be legally compliant.
- Distance: A reasonable distance must be maintained between the project site and the incineration facility.
- Transportation: Transportation must be effectively planned and managed.
- Storage: Adequate storage must be ensured for waste.
- Maintenance and staffing: Incinerators must be well maintained, with trained staff and financial resources allocated to meet environmental standards.
- Exit strategy: An exit strategy must be developed to ensure the facility can continue operating after the end of the intervention.
- Budget: Sufficient budget must be planned for maintenance and operating costs.
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Prerequisites & specificities
- Combustion temperature: A minimum temperature of 850°C must be reached for at least 2 seconds during combustion.
- Regular assessment: The facility must be visited and assessed regularly with expert support.
- Collaborative efforts: Mutualised efforts between actors, such as partnerships with cement factories or joint incinerator building/purchase, should be made to reduce costs.
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Potential risks
- Temperature and fume quality: The temperature achieved in incinerators and the toxicity of fumes may be difficult to accurately assess.
Tools and good practices
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DeMonfort Incinerator guidelines, 2004
Managing Health Care Waste Disposal: guidelines on how to construct, use, maintain a waste disposal unit.
Read here -
MSF Pacemaker guide on waste management and green logistic, 2024
Médecins Sans Frontières developped and published in 2024 the ‘PACE MAKER-100 Logistical solutions for meeting climate and environmental commitments’, with a section page 242 on how to choose an incinerator.
Read here -
UNEP Guidelines for medical waste incineration, 2012
The Environmental Council of Zambia (ECZ) and Ministry of Health (MoH), supported by UNEP and other actors, developed specifications to ensure adequate incineration of medical waste.
Read here -
Path Guidebook to choose the best small-scale incinerator, 2010
This guidebook is intended to be a practical guide for selecting, purchasing, installing, operating, and maintaining small-scale incinerators in low-resource settings.
Read here -
Advantages and disadvantages of waste incineration
A video from Waterpedia Environmental Learning Series.
Read here
To go further
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International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), The white book on energy from waste recovery, 2023
The Working Group on Energy Recovery (WGER) published this guidance on energy-from-waste (instead of waste-to-energy or incineration).
Explore more -
GIZ, Guidelines on pre- and co-processing of waste in cement production, 2020
Guidance on necessary conditions for pre- and co-processing of waste. It is addressed to public and private stakeholders and decision-makers from the waste and co-processing sector. It provides suggestions about possible steps as well as practical examples.
Read here -
Global Alliance for Incineration Alternative (GAIA), Facts about “waste-to-energy” incinerators, 2018
Facts published by GAIA showing the dark side of incineration and criticising waste-to-energy practices.
Explore here -
UNEP, Beyond an age of waste, 2024
This report is addressed to policymakers, governments, industry and international organisations, and provides information and recommendations to reduce waste worldwide, including reusing waste as a resource.
Read more -
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Emissions from waste incineration, 2003
An IPCC study about emissions generated by waste incineration practices.
Find out more -
Review on pollutants emitted by incineration in rotary kilns in China, 2019
Analysis and review of different studies concerning waste incineration in cement kilns in China and other countries.
Learn more -
Waste incinerators undermine clean energy goals, 2023
Study in the United States showing that waste incineration is not a viable option to clean the air quality.
Read here -
The role of incinerators in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, 2024 (in French)
An article discussing the European regulations driving the modernisation of waste incineration facilities.
Explore here -
Plasma gasification versus incineration of plastic waste: Energy, economic and environmental analysis, 2022
Study about the promising technology of plasma gasification to eliminate plastics, instead of incineration: less polluting, producing more energy, and economically viable.
Explore more
Acknowledgments
Last updated 19 August 2024.
Share your success stories, suggestions, and comments with us! contact@climateactionaccelerator.org
Sources
(1) United Nations Environment Programme, ‘Global Waste Management Outlook 2024: Beyond an age of waste’, Turning rubbish into a resource, 2024, Available here (accessed 20 August 2024).
(2) UN Environment Programme, ‘Stokholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants’, 2019, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(3) Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions, ‘Integrated pollution prevention and control’, EUR-Lex, 2010, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(4) SPHERE Handbook, Standard 6: Wash in healthcare settings, 2018, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(5) Making Medical Injections Safer, ‘The incinerator guidebook’, 2010, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(6) Batterman, ‘Findings on an Assessment of Small-scale Incinerators for Health-care Waste’, World Health Organisation, 2004, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(7) World Cement, ‘The cement industry in emerging countries’, 2018, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(8) Médecins Sans Frontières France, ‘Pace Maker’, 2024, Available here , (accessed 20 August 2024).
(9) CN Cemnet, ‘The Global Cement Report – Online Database of Cement Plants’, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(10) Gaia, ‘International Zero Waste Cities Conference,’ Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(11) T. Hsu, M. C. Liu, P. C. Hung, S H. Chang, M. B. Chang,‘PAH emissions from coal combustion and waste incineration’, ScienceDirect, 2016, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(12) Tangri, Waste incinerators undermine clean energy goals’, PLOS Climate, 2023, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(13) Johnke, ‘Emissions from waste incineration’, IPCC, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
(14) Hulo, ‘Joint Initiatives’, Available here, (accessed 20 August 2024).
Featured
Waste
Hazardous waste
Waste from electrical and electronic equipment
Non hazardous waste
Waste management principles
Credits
Cover photo: Karsten Füllhaas/Unsplash