Why is this important?
LLINs account for approximately 160 000 tonnes of plastic manufactured annually,(1) most of which is improperly disposed of.(2) These numbers are projected to grow with increasing demand. In addition to the impacts from using virgin fossil-based materials, further environmental and human health concerns relate to the toxic insecticides with which they are impregnated. The overall footprint of LLINs further extends to their packaging, in large part consisting of individual wrapping for each net and hence contributing to high amounts of plastic waste. Ultimately, the lack of a developed recycled LLINs market, individual packaging, absent take-back schemes, and a lack of proper disposal practices all contribute to their significant environmental impact.
Whats the solution?
To reduce the environmental impact of Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLINs), it is essential to explore sustainable production and disposal practices. Incorporating post-consumer recycled plastic into LLIN manufacturing can help reduce waste. By collectively advocating for the inclusion of these nets made of recycled material in the WHO pre-qualification list, the industry can push for more sustainable solutions. Researching closed-loop recycling opportunities for net-to-net manufacturing and implementing a collection system through incentivised collection points would additionally reduce the climate and environmental impact and limit improper disposal, as demonstrated by the USAID success story. Prioritising suppliers with robust decarbonisation strategies, ideally verified by organisations like the Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi), and those using renewable energy at production sites can significantly lower the carbon footprint associated with LLIN production.
Plastic waste can also be reduced by eliminating individual packaging and encouraging suppliers to use bulk packaging for large orders. Exploring oxi-biodegradable plastics and researching the potential for location and context-specific shifts to these materials can also mitigate environmental harm – yet its use is restricted and needs to be carefully evaluated.(3) Additionally, raising community awareness about the dangers of improper disposal, such as repurposing insecticide-treated nets for fishing or agriculture, is crucial. By acting collectively, organisations can promote the development of a recycled nets market and advocate for more sustainable LLIN practices globally.
Point of attention
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Point of attention
If suppliers were to move to recycled plastic for LLIN product, they would need to disclose the changes made in the materials to the WHO and may have to repeat prequalification processes. These are free yet last between six and twelve months, causing potential time lags.(4)
Definitions
Closed-loop recycling
Closed-loop recycling refers to the repurposing a product into one of the same category without degrading its quality; in the case of LLINs, this would apply to net-to-net recycling. Net-to-net recycling would help to move towards a circular economy for mosquito nets. While the technology to do so is available, putting it in practice requires an established system to collect old nets and make them available to relevant suppliers for turning them into new nets. Practical barriers to the development of closed-loop recycling for LLINs revolve notably around the difficulty of collecting nets, in addition to the need for greater collaborative efforts between national environment authorities and mosquito-borne disease programmes.(9) USAID has successfully implemented a pilot project (see success stories).
Open-loop recycling
Open-loop recycling refers to the repurposing of a product into one of a different application; for example, recycling PET bottles and using them for the production of mosquito nets. This reduces the overall carbon footprint and environmental impact of the final product and is a viable solution when the material is unable to be used for its original purpose anymore, or when it is available in masse. However, it has been proven difficult to further recycle the final product (and hence, to close the loop). (10)
Oxi-biodegradable plastics
Oxi-(bio)degradable plastics are plastics that include additives through which they degrade through oxidation in the open environment. Oxi-degradable plastics break down into microplastic particles that bacteria cannot consume, whereas oxi-biodegradable plastics decompose into pieces small enough to be ingested by bacteria in the natural environment. (11)
When considering oxi-biodegradable plastics, the following points need to be taken into account:
- They are not a disposal route. Oxi-biodegradable plastics can be reused, recycled and disposed of like normal plastic. However, oxi-biodegradable adding will ensure that if the plastic accidentally gets into the open environment, the molecular weight will reduce rapidly so it becomes biodegradable.
- They are not suitable for landfill. Biodegradation of oxi-biodegradable plastics in anaerobic conditions (landfill) will generate methane, a potent greenhouse gas. This is undesirable unless the landfill is designed to collect the gas.
- They will not degrade in the absence of oxygen.
- They cannot be composted.
Overarchingly, the use of oxi-biodegradable plastics is not a solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, rather one to limit local plastic pollution. See the UNHCR report on “Greening opportunities for mosquito nets” for an analysis.
Key actions
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#1 Use recycled plastics
Explore opportunities with suppliers using recycled plastics in LLIN production, preferably plastic which can no longer be recirculated for its original purpose (ie. Ocean plastic scrap).(12) Advocate collectively for the inclusion of recycled nets in the WHO pre-qualification list.
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#2 Explore closed-loop recycling
Research closed-loop recycling opportunities for net-to-net manufacturing. Seek to implement a collection system incentivised through collection points in order to limit improper disposal. See USAID success story.
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#3 Privilege suppliers with a decarbonisation strategy
Privilege suppliers with a robust decarbonisation plan, ideally verified externally, e.g. by the Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi). Prioritise suppliers that use renewable energies at their production site.
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#4 Remove individual packaging
Choose suppliers who practice or are willing to adapt to package redesign, using bulk rather than individual packaging for mass orders (ie. to hospitals). Signing long-term contracts with suppliers can further help incentivize this change. Note that this is less functional for individual deliveries and that this may damage LLINS, meaning that further research is still necessary (ie. paper packaging).(13)
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#5 Explore oxi-biodegradable plastics
Carefully consider oxi-biodegradable LLINs to reduce local plastic pollution, notably in areas with a high risk for improper disposal. Make sure to fully understand implications and to inform users about the correct disposal. See textbox for further information.
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#6 Inform users on proper disposal
Raise-awareness of the dangerous implications of improper disposal, in particular the use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets repurposed for fishing, protecting plants, reinforcing fences, and making ropes, among others.(14)
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#7 Act collectively
Advocate for recycled LLINs in WHO prequalification lists and provide incentives for the development of a recycled nets market.
To consider
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Potential co-benefits
- If enough organisations transition to sourcing recycled plastic, the increasing supply will generate a decrease in price in the long-term.(15)
- Cost-savings in LLIN procurement from bulk packaging, potentially allowing for greater numbers of LLIN distribution.(16)
- Decrease in resistant bacteria, viruses, and parasites generated by improper disposal.(17)
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Success conditions
- Provide key information and set up awareness sessions during distribution in order to ensure proper maintenance of nets and ensure their effectiveness. (18)
- For old LLIN recycling, leverage relations between distribution and collection efforts and create a centralised system around collection points. (19)
- Reorganise distribution practices to adapt to bulk packaging.
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Prerequisites & specificities
- WHO pre-qualification of recycled nets.
- Use advocacy to convince stakeholders of positive impacts and long-term cost-savings of net-to-net recycling.(20)
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Potential risks
- Higher prices for LLINs.
- Potential time lag for WHO approval (6 to 12 months), delaying market integration of recycled LLINs.
- The increasing decentralisation of healthcare complicates the task of plastic waste collection. (21)
Tools and good practices
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WHO, Vector Control Product List, 2023
Official WHO list of prequalified vector control product; find insecticidal nets under the ITN (Insecticide-Treated Nets) product type. This list further enables users to sort through products based on their title, applicant, active ingredient, and reference number.
Explore more -
UNHCR, Greening opportunities for mosquito nets, 2024
Technical summary of different environmental implications of LLINs, particularly in the context of UNHCR, and proposals of alternative solutions.
Explore more -
WHO, Recommendations on the sound management of old long-lasting insecticidal nets, 2014
List of good practices for LLIN disposal, collection, and distribution on a community level. This document details communications that should imperatively be made to receivers of LLINs.
Explore more -
United Nations Foundation, Uniting to fight malaria and protect the environment, 2021
Sheds light on how to increase environmentally-sound mosquito prevention practices without compromising human health. Focuses primarily on the implications of Malaria, the importance of net accessibility, and recent eco-friendly innovations.
Explore more
Further reading
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Unitaid, From milligrams to megatons: A climate and nature assessment of ten key health products, 2023
Explanation of the risks, impacts, and solutions associated with Unitaid’s 10 priority health products, including LLINs. Presents LCA results and aims to reduce the climate and environmental impact of the given items.
Find out more -
Larsen et. al., Implications of insecticide-treated mosquito net fishing in lower income countries, 2021
Report detailing the harmful effects of fishing with mosquito nets on human and animal health, arising from the toxicity of the pyrethroids they contain. Explores management strategies in fisheries to limit such implications.
Find out more -
The Alliance for Malaria Prevention, Tracking the number and location of ITNs in malarian-endemic countries: Net Mapping Project, 2024
Adaptive and interactive map of the world presenting global demand for shipped LLINS, per year and cumulative. Allows users to explore the number of nets per country and per category over time.
Find out more -
USAID, Madagascar LLIN Recycling Pilot Project Report, 2012
The USAID Deliver Project set up a partnership with Trex to collect 22,559 old LLINs and test their ability to be used in the manufacturing of new goods. This report provides insights on the collection methodology developed for the project: how to forecast quantities, site selection, contracting, communication, logistical details, and incentives, among others. Findings are then shared concerning the collection cost per LLIN and the population’s general willingness to return retired LLINs.
Find out more
Acknowledgment
This factsheet was prepared with the support of UNHCR, notably Tatyana Ageyeva and Ignazio Matteini. Last updated 13 August 2024.
Share your success stories, suggestions, and comments with us! contact@climateactionaccelerator.org
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Sources
(1) IOM, ‘Emergency Manual’, IOM UN Migration, Available here (accessed 9 August 2024).
Calculation: 200 million nets per year [Available here] x 0.8 kg (average weigh of one LLIN) = 160 000 tonnes of plastic
(2) UNICEF, Long-lasting Insecticidal Nets – Market and Supply Update, UNICEF Supply Division, Available here (accessed 9 August 2024).
(3) UNHCR, ‘Greening Opportunities for Mosquito Nets’, The UN Refugee Agency, p.19, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(4) UNHCR, ‘Greening Opportunities for Mosquito Nets’, The UN Refugee Agency, p.19, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(5) The Alliance for Malaria Prevention, ‘Net Mapping Project’, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(6) Surface of 1 average mosquito net: 2 x(1.8 m x 1.5 m x 1.6 m) = 15.96 m2
200 000 000 nets / year
200 000 000 x 15.96 m2 = 3 192 km2
Surface of Puerto Rico 9,104 sq km (Available here)
3 192 km2 / 9,104 = roughly 1/3 the surface of Puerto Rico
(7) The Alliance for Malaria Prevention, ‘Net Mapping Project’, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(8) UNICEF, Long-lasting Insecticidal Nets – Market and Supply Update, UNICEF Supply Division, Available here (accessed 9 August 2024).
(9) Vestergaard, ‘Towards a circular economy in the LLIN industry’, Vestergaard Impacting People, 2021, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(10) UNHCR, ‘Greening Opportunities for Mosquito Nets’, The UN Refugee Agency, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(11) UNHCR, ‘Greening Opportunities for Mosquito Nets’, The UN Refugee Agency, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(12) UNHCR, ‘Greening Opportunities for Mosquito Nets’, The UN Refugee Agency, p.19, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(13) UNHCR, ‘Greening Opportunities for Mosquito Nets’, The UN Refugee Agency, p.24, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(14) L. Kibe, A. Kamau, ‘A formative study of disposal and re-use of old mosquito nets by communities in Malindi, Kenya’, PMC PubMed Central, 2015, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(15) UNHCR, ‘Greening Opportunities for Mosquito Nets’, The UN Refugee Agency, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(16) Unicef, ‘Managing Packaging Waste Sustainably – Lessons from Humanitarian Organizations’, Joint Initiative and UNICEF, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(17) UNITAID, ‘From milligrams to megatons : A climate and nature assessment of ten key health products’, Unitaid, 2023, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(18) Unicef, ‘Managing Packaging Waste Sustainably – Lessons from Humanitarian Organizations’, Joint Initiative and UNICEF, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(19) USAID, ‘Madagascar: LLIN Recycling Pilot Project’, USAID Deliver Project, 2022, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(20) Unicef, ‘Managing Packaging Waste Sustainably – Lessons from Humanitarian Organizations’, Joint Initiative and UNICEF, 2024, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
(21) UNITAID, ‘From milligrams to megatons : A climate and nature assessment of ten key health products’, Unitaid, 2023, Available here (accessed 19 July 2024).
Credits
Cover photo: Prashant Bamnawat/Unsplash